Child Maltreatment: Overview and Prevention Considerations
Child Maltreatment: Overview and Prevention Considerations
CM, like other forms of trauma, does not affect children in a predictable or consistent fashion. Heterogeneity in short- and long-term outcomes is the result of multiple, interacting factors, including features of the maltreatment experience itself (e.g., severity, chronicity), as well as characteristics of the child (e.g., age, sex), and the child's family, relationships, and community environment (CDC, 2013a). Some research indicates that nearly one quarter of children who are maltreated evidence no long-term symptoms whatsoever (McGloin & Widom, 2001), likely because of the complex interplay of multiple levels of risk and protective factors at any given time in a child's life (Cicchetti & Toth, 2005).
As defined in the Surgeon General's report on youth violence, risk factors are those elements that increase the chances of a person acting violently, or being the victim of a violent act (USDHHS, 2001). In other words, a risk factor for CM is any characteristic or circumstance that, if present for a given child, makes it more likely that he or she will experience maltreatment. A protective factor, in contrast, decreases one's likelihood to experience CM.
Risk and protective factors are not static and change over time. A factor that increases risk for CM at one life stage may or may not put the same child at risk at a later stage in development (Cicchetti & Toth, 2005). Researchers have long regarded family-level factors as the most influential in determining child exposure to maltreatment and related outcomes (Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993) in large part because individual and family-level factors were the most often examined variables in research. However, evidence over the last several years has expanded to describe the important contributions that the community and broader environment also play in predicting CM victimization and perpetration (Coulton, Crampton, Irwin, Spilsbury, & Korbin, 2007; Klein, 2011).
Although children are not responsible for the harm inflicted upon them, some individual child characteristics have repeatedly been found to increase risk of being maltreated; these characteristics include age less than four years and having special needs. Parental characteristics, such as a lack of understanding of child development and parenting skills; history of child abuse; substance abuse and/or mental health issues; young age; low education; single parenthood; large number of dependent children; low income; and non-biological, transient caregivers in the home (e.g., mother's male partner), have also been found to increase risk of perpetration of child abuse in the home. Other risk factors for perpetration include poor and/or few social connections and support; other forms of family violence in the home (e.g., intimate partner violence); poor parent-child relationships; parenting stress; community violence; and concentrated neighborhood disadvantage (CDC, 2013a; Jent & Merrick, 2013; Merrick & Jent, 2013).
Of particular note is that, while a history of CM may serve as a risk factor, such a history does not necessarily determine who will go on to perpetrate CM. Thornberry, Knight, and Lovegrove (2012) found that the positive association between a history of CM and subsequent perpetration is based largely on methodologically weak research designs; the more rigorous research studies had mixed results. Among methodologically sound research studies that do find an intergenerational continuity in experiences of CM, safe, stable, nurturing relationships have been found to moderate this relationship. That is, protective factors, such as relationships characterized by warmth, trust, and support, can break the cycle of CM across generations (Conger et al., 2013; Jaffee et al., 2013; Merrick, Lee, & Leeb, 2013; Schofield, Lee, Merrick, 2013; Thornberry et al., 2013). Protective factors, although pivotally important, have garnered far less attention in research than risk factors. That said, strong perceived social support, a child having a good relationship with at least one parental figure, and having a familial socioeconomic status above the poverty level have been continually associated with lower risk for CM (Freisthler, Bruce, & Needell, 2007; Muller et al., 2000).
Risk and Protective Factors Related to Child Maltreatment
CM, like other forms of trauma, does not affect children in a predictable or consistent fashion. Heterogeneity in short- and long-term outcomes is the result of multiple, interacting factors, including features of the maltreatment experience itself (e.g., severity, chronicity), as well as characteristics of the child (e.g., age, sex), and the child's family, relationships, and community environment (CDC, 2013a). Some research indicates that nearly one quarter of children who are maltreated evidence no long-term symptoms whatsoever (McGloin & Widom, 2001), likely because of the complex interplay of multiple levels of risk and protective factors at any given time in a child's life (Cicchetti & Toth, 2005).
As defined in the Surgeon General's report on youth violence, risk factors are those elements that increase the chances of a person acting violently, or being the victim of a violent act (USDHHS, 2001). In other words, a risk factor for CM is any characteristic or circumstance that, if present for a given child, makes it more likely that he or she will experience maltreatment. A protective factor, in contrast, decreases one's likelihood to experience CM.
Risk and protective factors are not static and change over time. A factor that increases risk for CM at one life stage may or may not put the same child at risk at a later stage in development (Cicchetti & Toth, 2005). Researchers have long regarded family-level factors as the most influential in determining child exposure to maltreatment and related outcomes (Cicchetti & Lynch, 1993) in large part because individual and family-level factors were the most often examined variables in research. However, evidence over the last several years has expanded to describe the important contributions that the community and broader environment also play in predicting CM victimization and perpetration (Coulton, Crampton, Irwin, Spilsbury, & Korbin, 2007; Klein, 2011).
Although children are not responsible for the harm inflicted upon them, some individual child characteristics have repeatedly been found to increase risk of being maltreated; these characteristics include age less than four years and having special needs. Parental characteristics, such as a lack of understanding of child development and parenting skills; history of child abuse; substance abuse and/or mental health issues; young age; low education; single parenthood; large number of dependent children; low income; and non-biological, transient caregivers in the home (e.g., mother's male partner), have also been found to increase risk of perpetration of child abuse in the home. Other risk factors for perpetration include poor and/or few social connections and support; other forms of family violence in the home (e.g., intimate partner violence); poor parent-child relationships; parenting stress; community violence; and concentrated neighborhood disadvantage (CDC, 2013a; Jent & Merrick, 2013; Merrick & Jent, 2013).
Of particular note is that, while a history of CM may serve as a risk factor, such a history does not necessarily determine who will go on to perpetrate CM. Thornberry, Knight, and Lovegrove (2012) found that the positive association between a history of CM and subsequent perpetration is based largely on methodologically weak research designs; the more rigorous research studies had mixed results. Among methodologically sound research studies that do find an intergenerational continuity in experiences of CM, safe, stable, nurturing relationships have been found to moderate this relationship. That is, protective factors, such as relationships characterized by warmth, trust, and support, can break the cycle of CM across generations (Conger et al., 2013; Jaffee et al., 2013; Merrick, Lee, & Leeb, 2013; Schofield, Lee, Merrick, 2013; Thornberry et al., 2013). Protective factors, although pivotally important, have garnered far less attention in research than risk factors. That said, strong perceived social support, a child having a good relationship with at least one parental figure, and having a familial socioeconomic status above the poverty level have been continually associated with lower risk for CM (Freisthler, Bruce, & Needell, 2007; Muller et al., 2000).
